单击此处编辑母版标题样式,,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,,第二级,,第三级,,第四级,,第五级,,,,,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,,第二级,,第三级,,第四级,,第五级,,,,,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,,第二级,,第三级,,第四级,,第五级,,,,,Lexicology 词汇学,Lexicology,A branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.,,,Aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures (,形态结构,) of words, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.,Relation with other disciplines,Morphology,形态学（,structure,）,,Semantics,语义学 （,meaning,）,,Etymology,词源学 （,origin and historical development,）,,stylistics,文体学 （,style,）,,Lexicography,词典编纂学,（,dictionary,）,,,Lexicology embraces all the above.,,,主要内容,英语词汇学是一门以当代语言学多种理论为指导，全面深入研究英语,词汇,的专业课程。
课程的主要内容包括：词汇学习和研究的基本概念、英语词汇的来源和发展演变、构词方法、词义的变化、词义关系、英语成语等Chapter One,A General Survey of English Vocabulary,英语词汇概述,Key points,1. word: definition,,2. Development of English Vocabulary (history),,3. Classification of English Words,,Word,Word,与字？,,Definition,：,,the two often quoted definitions from,Bloomfield,布洛姆菲尔德（美国语言学家教育家）,and,,a French linguist, Antoine,Meillet,（梅耶，法国语言学家）,Bloomfield,“some linguistic forms,（语言形态）,, which we call bound forms(,限定,/,非自由形态,),,are never used as sentences.,,,,Bound forms: as part of a larger form,,e.g. boy,ish /,child,ish,,Free forms: occur as sentences,,e.g. Fire!/ Help!/ Poor John/ John ran away.,,A word is a free form which does not consist entirely of (two or more) lesser free forms. In belief,,a word is a minimum free form.” (p. 1,,para,. 2),,,This definition emphasizes syntax(,句法,),，,but does not touch upon meaning.,,Antoine,Meillet,“,A word is defined by the,association,of a given,sense,with a given group of,sounds,capable of a given,grammatical use,.” (p.2, para.2 ),,Main criteria,（标准）,of a word:,,Sound, meaning and syntactic function,（音、义、形）,Definition,a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form;,,with a unity of sound and meaning capable of performing a given,syntactic,function.,（,p. 2. para.4,）,,言语的基本单位和最小自由形态；它是声音和意义的结合体，能发挥一定的句法功能。
Words are either spoken or written.(,口头和书面,),An Example,The young man left quietly.,,,Sound:,,Meaning:,,Syntactic function(,句法功能,): part of speech(,词性,),,The: article,冠词,young: adj.,形容词,,Man,：,n.,名词,left,：,v.,动词,quietly: adv,副词,1. The development of English Vocabulary,英语词汇的发展,Vocabulary,All the words in a language,： （,p.3,）,,The building materials of a language.,,Important to have some knowledge of its development and growth.,,,A: Historical perspective,历史的角度,Development of English and its vocabulary:,,1.,Old English,古英语,/,Anglo-Saxon,盎格鲁撒克逊,（,449-1100,）,,England,：,Celtic,（凯尔特语）,/ 450AD,，,invaded by Angles,盎格鲁,, Saxons,撒克逊,, Jutes,朱特人,,Vocabulary,：,5000-6000 words,，,chiefly,Anglo-Saxon,/ some Old Norse,古斯堪的那维亚语,,Old Norse words,(are, they, their, them, till, call, die, give, take, skin, window, ill, weak),,Latin words,: Roman contact (bargain, cheap, inch, pound, cup, dish, wall, wine),,Christianity,基督教,: abbot (,修道院院长,)altar,圣坛,candle,，,temple,,Middle English,（,1100-1500,）,Transitional,过度的：,,French Influence,,Norman Conquest in 1066,诺曼底征服,,English for the mass and French for the rulers,Vocabulary:,,Loss of a large part of Old English words,,Adoption of,French words,:,,Law and government: (judge, justice, state),,Military: (conquer, victory),,Religion: (confess, divine, sermon,布道,),clothing,: (coat, dress, gown, robe),,Food: (beef, pork, dinner),,Art: (beauty, image),,Literature: (chapter, poet, prose),,Science: (medicine, remedy, surgeon),,,The core of the language: Still English,Modern English(1500-present),1. Renaissance: the study of the classics,,Latin,loan words,—,science and abstract ideas (function, education, exist, scientific),,Greek words,: literary, technical and scientific words: (drama, comedy, tragedy, physics),French,: caf,é, attaché(,专员,),,Spanish,：,cigar, vanilla,，,cocoa,,Italian,：,concert, piano, solo, piazza.,,Portuguese,葡萄牙语,: caste,种姓制度，,pagoda,宝塔,,German,：,zinc,锌,,Dutch,：,dock,,,Russian,：,vodka, tsar,沙皇,,,2. Exploration, colonization and trade---- borrow from non-European language,,Australian,：,kangaroo,,Arabic,：,sugar,，,alcohol,,Indian,：,coolie, khaki,,Hebrew,希伯来语,:,,Chinese,：,yamen,,Japanese: tycoon,,African: zebra, gorilla,Summary,The English language has vast debts.,,80% words are borrowed.,,Latin, French, Greek, Scandinavian languages,,Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Dutch.,,Other languages of the world.,,Result:,,1. Vocabulary extremely rich and heterogeneous,多样化的 （,one million words,）,,2. synonyms and idioms,B: rapid growth of present-day English Vocabulary and Its causes,Neologisms(,新词,) after World War II,,Reasons,：,,1. progress of science and technology,科技,,2. socio-economic, political and cultural changes,社会经济、政治和文化,,3. the influence of other cultures and languages,其他文化和语言的影响,Marked progress of science and technology,Examples:,,1. Nuclear bombs: chain reaction,连所犯反应,, overkill,过度杀伤,, medium-range ballistic missiles,中程弹道导弹,,2. Exploration of Space: astronaut, countdown, spaceman, space shuttle,,3. computer science: software, hardware, input, output, memory, monitor, data base,2. Socio-economic, political and cultural changes,A. new social habits and new living conditions: hire purchase(,租购,),，,credit card,,B. Domestic habits: chores,杂事,, house sitter,代为看管房屋的人,, house sitting, supermarket,,C. Drug addiction,药物成瘾,: acid head,瘾君子,,D. Student unrest: be-in(,社交集会,) love-in,谈情说爱的集会,gay/ homophile,,,E. internal political struggle in the US: Sit-in,静坐,swim-in,游泳抗议,teach-in,宣讲会；座谈会（大学校园中就有争议的或重要的问题发表意见进行讨论）,,F: Women’s liberation movement: Ms, Chairperson, chairwoman, spokeswomen, saleswoman, feminism, sexism,性别歧视,,G. Struggle of the black people: black studies,黑人研究,black power,黑人权利,,H. changes in Education: open classroom, open university,,,I. New Entertainment: call-in,电话交谈节目,,J. Sports: skydiving,跳伞运动,,3. The influence of other cultures and languages,Discotheque,迪斯科舞厅,,,Mao tai,,Summary,The development of science,,the rapid changes in society,,The receptive and flexible nature of English,,,Resulted in a dramatic increase in vocabulary.,2. Classification of English Words,英语单词的分类,Three criteria,三个标准,1. by origin,起源,,2. by level of usage,使用的等级,,3. by notion,概念功能,By origin: native words and loan words,Native words,本族词,:,,Words of Anglo-Saxon,盎格鲁,-,撒克逊,origin or of Old English,,Loan words,外来词,(borrowed words):,,words borrowed from other languages,,Naturalized or used as they are in the original language. (p. 9),Native words,Most are,monosyllabic,(,单音节的,),,The great majority of the,basic word stock,:,,basic word stock,基本词库,: foundation of the vocabulary,,Auxiliary and modal verbs:,情态动词,,Numerals,数词，,pronoun,代词，,preposition,介词，,conjunctions,连词,…,(p.10, para.2),,Fundamental features of the basic word stock,1. national character:,全国性,,2. stability,稳定性（,relatively,）,,3. word-forming ability:,构词能力,,4. ability to form collocations:,与其他词搭配的能力,,Questions,1.Are there more native words or more loan words in English?,,2. which are used more frequently in everyday speech and writing?,,By origin, English words can be classified into______________.,By level of usage,使用的等级,1. Common words,常用词汇,:,（,p.11,）,,words connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life.,,The great majority of English words are common words.,,,The core of the common words is the basic word stock.,,Appropriate in formal and informal writing and speech.,2. Literary words,书面词,:,,chiefly used in,writing,, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents or in formal speeches.,,comparatively,seldom used in ordinary conversation,.,,Examples: p. 12,,Foresee, outline,vs. visualize, adumbrate,,Fatigued, retired,vs. tired, went to bed,,In English, most of the literary words are of French, Latin or Greek origin.,,Everyday synonyms: P. 12 for examples:,Among the literary words, two categories are noteworthy:,Archaic words:,古体词,,,words no longer in common use, although retained for special purpose. (They are sometimes employed in poetry, business letters, etc.),Examples,Abed---in bed; behold---see; belike---probably;,natheless,---nevertheless; perchance---by chance.,,Archaic word are marked as “,arch,”,,different from,obsolete,（废弃的）,,words. Obsolete words are those completely out of current use. Marked “,obl,, dated”,,Poetical words:,诗歌词语,,Poetical words are words that are traditionally used only in,poetry,.,,Array---outfit; the deep---the sea; stead---horse; morn---morning;,,Some words are,both poetic and archaic,: p.13 for examples.,,3. Colloquial words,口语词,:,,used mainly in spoken English, as in conversation among friends and colleagues. They can also be used in informal writings,Examples,Feeling,fatigued,, Tom,retired,early. (Literary),,Tom felt so,dog-tired,he,hit the sack,early. (Colloquial),,John was,dismissed,for petty thieving. (Common),,John was,fired,for petty thieving. ( Colloquial ),,Slang words:,俚语词,,language, words or phrases of a vigorous,,colourful,, facetious,滑稽的,, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.”,Colloquial vs. slang,Some overlap,,Colloquial: not to be used on formal occasions,,Slang: not used in informal conversations, unless the speakers are on intimate terms.,The chief reason for the formation and use of slang expressions is,to secure freshness and novelty,.,,Buzz--- telephone call,,Knockout---,给人留下深刻印象的人；绝代佳人,,Nuthouse,—,精神病院,,To play hooky,—,逃学,,Technical words:,专业术语,,words used in various,special fields,.,,Every branch of science, every profession or trade, art, and every sort of sports has its own technical terms.,Summary,Since language is constantly changing, the classification of words by level of usage is not absolute.,Question,By level of usage, English vocabulary can be classified into ______.,,A.,common words, literary words, colloquial words, slang words and technical words.,B.,native words and loan words,C.,function words and content words,D.,original words and derivational words,By notion,意念,: function words and content words,Function words:,虚词,,often short words such as determiners,限定词,, conjunctions,连词,, prepositions,介词,, auxiliaries,助动词,, and so forth.,,They do not have much lexical meaning,词汇意义,and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own;,,They h,a,v,e,,g,r,a,m,m,a,t,i,c,a,l,,m,e,a,n,i,n,g,.,,语法意义,.,,They belong to a relatively small and permanent set of words.,,The total number of function words is about 154.,,Content words:,实词,,Words used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning.,,Nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs,,Content words belong to an,open list.,,,Summary,Function words: small in number, closed list, most frequently used,,Content words: large in number, open list, low frequency of occurrence.,,Chapter summary,Word:,,Historical development of English vocabulary,,Classification of English words,Chapter II,Morphological structure of English words,英语词汇的形态结构,1. Morphemes,词素,/,语素,Word,a fundamental unit of speech and a,minimum free form,; with,a unity of sound and meaning,(both lexical and grammatical meaning) capable of performing a given,syntactic,function,,A. Basic information,：,1. The morpheme is the,smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language,, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.,,Example:,denationalization,民营化（,word,）,,-----de+nation+al+iz+action,,（,five morphemes,）,,A word may be,analysable,into one or more morphemes.,,A morpheme is also a two-facet language unit which possesses both,sound and meaning,.,,Different from a phoneme:,音素,---k /,k/,u/ju,:/,,a/,ei,,,i/ai,/,,A book, I love him.,,A morpheme is not identical (,同一的,) with a syllable (,音节,), either, since the latter has nothing to do with meaning.,,Boy, child----one syllable, one morpheme.,,lady--- two syllables, one morpheme.,,Crocodile--- three syllables, one morpheme.,,B. Allomorphs,语素变体,/,同词素的异形词,,,An allomorph is,any of the variant forms of a morpheme,as conditioned by position or adjoining sound.,,Examples:,,S in Books/s/, pigs/z/, horses/,iz,/,Suffix:,后缀,,-ion/ -,tion,/ -,sion,/ -,ation,,,Inven,t,--- invent,ion,,Describe-descrip,tion,,Justify---justific,ation,,,,modernize-moderniz,ation,,Expand,—,expansion,,,decide--decision,,,prefix,前缀：,im-/ir-/il-/in,-,,im,-im,p,erfect, im,p,ossible, im,b,alance, im,m,obile,,ir,-ir,r,esponsible, ir,r,egular,,il,- il,l,ogical,,in– inflexible, inexcusable,,,2. Classification of morphemes,词素的分类,A: free and bound,Free Morpheme,自由语素,:,is one that can be uttered,说,,,讲,alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme(,限定语素,/,粘着语素,).,,A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense.,,E.g. man, faith, read, write, red,,Bound Morpheme,限定语素,:,cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.,,E.g,: un---unkind; -,ly,---happily; re---receive; s---dogs; ex,—,boxes; ed---worked.,B.,Roots and Affixes,morphemes may be divided into,roots,词根,(or root morphemes,根词素,) and,affixes,词缀,(or,affixational,morphemes,,词缀语素）,Roots,词根,A root is the,basic unchangeable part,of a word, and it conveys the,main lexical meaning,of the word.,,E.g.,work,,,work,able,,work,er,,work,ed,,work,ing,,,Roots are the cores of English words. Historically the root is the earliest form of a word.,Root are either free or bound.,Free roots,自由词根,In English, many roots are free morphemes. E.g. boy, moon, walk, black,,Free roots belong to the basic word-stock,基本词库,, and have the fundamental features of the basic word-stock.,,A free root consists one morpheme.,Bound roots,限定词根,They are not words, and so are not free morphemes; they cannot exist on their own. < Nor can they be used to form new words. P.24,,tain,--- contain, detain, retain,,ceive,--- receive, deceive, conceive,Summary,A root, free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.,,Re,viv,e,,Vit,amin,,Vit,al,,viv,id,Affixes,词缀,,An affix is a collective term for the type of formative (,构词要素,) that can be used only when added to another morpheme. P.25,,,Affixes, therefore, are considered,bound morphemes,. They may be divided into,inflectional,（曲折变化）,and derivational,,（派生）,types. P.25,Inflectional Affixes,曲折变化词缀,An inflectional affix serves to express such meaning as plurality,复数,, tense,时态,, and the comparative,比较,or superlative degree,最高级,.,,Inflectional affix does not form a new word with,new lexical meaning,when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the,word-class,of the word to which it is affixed.,,The number of inflectional affixes is small and fixed; They have only their particular,grammatical meaning,.,Plural,复数,:,-s-,es,-,,,Genitive case,属格：,Tom’,s,,Third person singular present tense,第三人称单数,: work,s,,Present participle,现在分词,: -,ing,,Past tense and past participle: -ed –d,,Comparative: slow,er,,Superlative: fast,est,,Derivational affixes,派生词缀,When they are added to another morpheme, they,derived a new word,.,,Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning,词汇意义,; or more than one meaning.,,E.g. p. 25,Derivational affixes have not only independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning,情感色彩,.,,mis,-/ mal-/,,There are also derivational affixes which can be attached to words of different word-classes.,,v./ n. +able washable/ marriageable,,The number of derivational affixes, although,limited,, is much,larger than that of inflectional affixes,.,,,commonly subdivided into prefixes,前缀,and suffixes,后缀,:,,Prefixes: affixes before the word are called prefixes.,,Suffixes: affixes after the word are called suffixes.,,Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to:,,,Their linguistic origin,:,,Native affixes,(are those that existed in English in the OE period or were formed form OE words.) and,Foreign affixes,(came as a part of loan words from foreign languages.),Hybrid,混合词,: Most foreign prefixes and suffixes have long since become naturalized in English, and many words have been formed form elements of mixed origins.,,<,A hybrid is a word made up of elements from two or more different languages.>,,Examples,：,p.27,Their productivity,生产能力,Affixes are called,productive or living,when they can be used to form new words. Those that are no longer used to form new words are termed,dead or unproductive,.,Morpheme,,(On the morphemic level, words can be classified into:,simple, complex and compound words.),,According to the number and type of morphemes they contain, words can be classified into:,Simple words,简单的词,those consisting of a single morpheme. E.g.) man, work, kind.,Derived words,派生词,those which are the result of a derivational process. E.g.) fruitless, fruitful, unfruitful.,,,Compound words:,复合词,those which are composed of two or more,free morphemes.,,,E.g. spacesuit, forget-me-not, jack of all trades.,Summary,Refer to p. 29,Chapter III,Word-formation,构词法,,The three major Process of word formation,三种主要的构词法,,General Remarks,Ways of forming words: on the basis of frequency of usage,根据使用的频率,,Major,：,compounding,复合法，,derivation,派生，,conversion,转化,,Minor,：,,acronym,首字母缩略词，,blending,拼缀法，,clipping,截短法，,proper names,专有名词，,back formation,逆构法，,reduplication,重叠法，,neo-classical formation,新古典法，,miscellaneous,其他,Percentage,of new words coined by the different word-formation,1. The three major processes of word-formation ( 55% of the new vocabulary. ):,,Compounding:,,Derivation:,,Conversion:,,2. The eight minor processes of word-formation: (26.5% of the new vocabulary),,Some basic concepts of word-formation,1. word-formation rules:,,The rules of word formation define the scope and method whereby speakers of a language may create new words.,,P. 32,Root, stem, base,Terms used in linguistics to designate that part of word that remains when all affixes have been removed.,,词根,,词干,,词基,Root,词根,A root,is a form which is not further,analyzable,（可分解的）,, either in terms of,derivational,（派生的）,or,inflectional,（屈折变化的）,,morphology.,,It is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. A root is the basic part always present in a lexeme,（词位）,.,,Example,undesirables ----- the root is “,desire,”, to which first the suffix,“-able,”, then prefix “,un,-” and finally the inflectional suffix,“-s,” have been added.,,In a compound word “greenhouse”-----root is “green” and ”house”,Stem,词干,A stem,is of concern only when,dealing with inflectional,屈折变化的,morphology,形态学,. Inflectional,(but not derivational) affixes are added to it.,It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.,Example,Undesirable,s ------the stem is undesirable;,desire,d-----the stem is desire;,,greenhouse,s------stem is greenhouse (even though the stem consists of two roots),Base,词基,A base,is any form to which,affixes,of any kind can be added;,,,This means that any root or stem can be termed a base.,Difference between base and root:,,Base,is a derivationally analyzable form to which derivational affixes are added.,,Root,is a form which permits no,further analysis,.,Difference between base and stem:,,Base,: both derivational and inflectional affixes can be attached to a base;,,Stem,: only inflectional affixes can be added to a stem.,Example,Desir,able,,Base,：,desire (+able,后缀,),,Root: desire,（,not analyzable,不可再分割）,,Stem?,没有（没有加屈折变化的成分，比如单复数）,,Undesirable,：,,Base,：,desirable,（,+un,前缀）,,Root,：,desire,,Stem,：没有,Compounding,复合法,A word process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a,compound,word,（复合词）,. P. 35,,The largest number of words are formed by compounding.,Orthographic,,criterion,正字法标准,,Solid:,结实的,airmail,,Hyphenated:,带连字符号的,air-conditioning,,Open,： 敞开的,air force,Phonological criterion,,音位标准,Stress,重读,,A single stress on the first element (‘__ __) as ‘,space,rocket;,,A main stress on the 1st element and a secondary stress on the 2nd element (‘__ ,__) as ‘,black,-,list;,example,‘,bluebird-----a species of bird,蓝知更鸟,,‘,blue bottle-----a large buzzing fly with blue body,大苍蝇；青。