Contents01. THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE - 3 -02. THE NONMETAL ELEMENTS - 5 -03. GROUPS IB AND IIB ELEMENTS - 7 -04. GROUPS IIIB—VIIIB ELEMENTS - 9 -05. INTERHALOGEN AND NOBLE GAS COMPOUNDS - 11 -06. THE CLASSIFICATION OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS - 13 -07. THE NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS - 15 -08. BRONSTED'S AND LEWIS' ACID-BASE CONCEPTS - 19 -09. THE COORDINATION COMPLEX - 22 -10. ALKANES - 25 -11. UNSATURATED COMPOUNDS - 28 -12. THE NOMENCLATURE OF CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS - 30 -13. SUBSTITUTIVE NOMENCLATURE - 33 -14. THE COMPOUNDS CONTAINING OXYGEN - 37 -15. PREPARATION OF A CARBOXYLiC ACID BY THE GRIGNARD METHOD - 39 -16. THE STRUCTURES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS - 41 -17. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - 44 -18. SYNTHESIS OF ALCOHOLS AND DESIGN OF ORGANIC SYNTHESIS - 47 -19. ORGANOMETALLICS—METAL π COMPLEXES - 49 -20. THE ROLE OF PROTECTIVE GROUPS IN ORGANIC SYNTHESIS - 52 -21. ELECTROPHILIC REACTIONS OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS - 54 -22. POLYMERS - 57 -23. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY AND PROBLEMS IN SOCIETY - 61 -24. VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS - 63 -25. QUALITATIVE ORGANIC ANALYSIS - 65 -26. VAPOR-PHASE CHROMATOGRAPHY - 67 -27. INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY - 70 -28. NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (I) - 72 -29. NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE(II) - 75 -30. A MAP OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY - 77 -31. THE CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS - 79 -32. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND KINETICS - 82 -33. THE RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS - 85 -34. NATURE OF THE COLLOIDAL STATE - 88 -35. ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS - 90 -36. BOILING POINTS AND DISTILLATION - 93 -37. EXTRACTIVE AND AZEOTROPIC DISTILLATION - 96 -38. CRYSTALLIZATION - 98 -39. MATERIAL ACCOUNTING - 100 -40. THE LITERATURE MATRIX OF CHEMISTRY - 102 -01. THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLEThe number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z.The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. To the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of the English name consisting of one or two letters, for example: oxygen==O nitrogen == N neon==Ne magnesium == MgSome elements,which have been known for a long time,have symbols based on their Latin names, for example: iron==Fe(ferrum) copper==Cu(cuprum) lead==Pb(plumbum)A complete listing of the elements may be found in Table 1.Beginning in the late seventeenth century with the work of Robert Boyle, who proposed the presently accepted concept of an element, numerous investigations produced a considerable knowledge of the properties of elements and their compounds1. In 1869, D.Mendeleev and L. Meyer, working independently, proposed the periodic law. In modern form, the law states that the properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. In other words, when the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, elements having closely similar properties will fall at definite intervals along the list. Thus it is possible to arrange the list of elements in tabular form with elements having similar properties placed in vertical columns2. Such an arrangement is called a periodicEach horizontal row of elements constitutes a period. It should be noted that the lengths of the periods vary. There is a very short period containing only 2 elements, followed by two short periods of 8 elements each, and then two long periods of 18 elements each. The next period includes 32 elements, and the last period is apparently incomplete. With this arrangement, elements in the same vertical column have similar characteristics. These columns constitute the chemical families or groups. The groups headed by the members of the two 8-element periods are designated as main group elements, and the members of the other groups are called transition or inner transition elements.In the periodic table, a heavy stepped line divides the elements into metals and nonmetals. Elements to the left of this line (with the exception of hydrogen) are metals, while those to the right are nonmetals. This division is for convenience only; elements bordering the line—the metalloids-have properties characteristic of - both metals and nonmetals. It may be seen that most of the elements, including all the transition and inner transition elements, are metals.Except for hydrogen, a gas, the elements of group IA make up the alkali metal family. They are very reactive metals, and they are never found in the elemental state in nature. However, their compounds are widespread. All the members of the alkali metal family, form ions having a charge of 1+ only. In contrast, the elements of group IB —copper, silver, and gold—are comparatively inert. They are similar to the alkali metals in that they exist as 1+ ions in many of their compounds. However, as is characteristic of most transition elements, they form ions having other charges as well.The elements of group IIA are known as the alkaline earth metals. Their characteristic ionic charge is 2+. These metals, particularly the last two members of the group, are almost as reactive as the alkali metals. The group IIB elements—zinc, cadmium, and mercury are less reactive than are those of group II A5, but are more reactive than the neighboring elements of group IB. The characteristic charge on their ions is also 2+.With the exception of boron, group IIIA elements are also fairly reactive metals. Aluminum appears to be inert toward reaction with air, but this behavior stems from the fact that the metal forms a thin, invisible film of aluminum oxide on the surface, which protects the bulk of the metal from further oxidation. The metals of group IIIA form ions of 3+ charge. Group IIIB consists of the metals scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium.Group IVA consists of a nonmetal, carbon, two metalloids, silicon and germanium, and two metals, tin and lead. Each of these elements forms some compounds with formulas which indicate that four other atoms are present per group IVA atom, as, for example, carbon tetrachloride, GCl4. The group IVB metals —titanium, zirconium, and hafnium —also forms compounds in which each group IVB atom is combined with four other atoms; these compounds are nonelectrolytes when pure.The elements of group V A include three nonmetals — nitrogen, phosphorus, and arsenic—and two metals — antimony and bismuth. Although compounds with the formulas N2O5, PCl5, and AsCl5 exist, none of them is ionic. These elements do form compounds-nitrides, phosphides, and arsenides — in which ions having charges of minus three occur. The elements of group VB are all metals. These elements form such a variety of different compounds that their characteristics are not easily generalized.With the exception of polonium, the elements of group VIA are typical nonmetals. They are sometimes known, as the, chalcogens, from the Greek word meaning "ash formers". In their binary compounds with metals they exist as ions having a charge of 2-. The elements of group ⅦA are all nonmetals and are known as the halogens. from the Greek term meaning "salt formers.” They are the most reactive nonmetals and are capable of reacting with practically all the metals and with most nonmetals, including each other.The elements of groups ⅥB, ⅦB, and VIIIB are all metals. They form such a wide Variety of compounds that it is not practical at this point to present any examples as being typical of the behavior of the respective groups. The periodicity of chemical behavior is illustrated by the fact that. excluding the first period, each period begins with a very reactive metal. Successive element along the period show decreasing metallic character, eventually becoming nonmetals, and finally, in group ⅦA, a very reactive nonmetal is found. Each period ends with a member of the noble gas family. 02. THE NONMETAL ELEMENTSWe noted earlier. that -nonmetals exhibit properties that are greatly different from those of the metals. As a rule, the nonmetals are poor conductors of electricity (graphitic carbon is an exception) and heat; they are brittle, are often intensely colored, and show an unusually wide range of melting and boiling points. Their molecular structures, usually involving ordinary covalent bonds, vary from the simple diatomic molecules of H2, Cl2, I2, and N2 to the giant molecules of diamond, silicon and boron.The nonmetals that are gases at room temperature are the low-molecular weight diatomic molecules and the noble gases that exert very small intermolecular forces. As the molecular weight increases, we encounter a liquid (Br2) and a solid (I2) whose vapor pressures also indicate small intermolecular forces. Certain properties of a few nonmetals are listed in Table 2.Table 2- Molecular Weights and Melting Points of Certain NonmetalsDiatomic MoleculesMolecular WeightMelting Point °CColorH22-239.1'NoneN228-210NoneF238-223Pale yellowO232-218Pale blueCl271-102Yellow — greenBr2160-7.3Red — brownI2254113Gray—blackSimple diatomic molecules are not formed by the heavier members of Groups V and VI at ordinary conditions. This is in direct contrast to the first members of these groups, N2 and O2. The difference arises because of the lower stability of π bonds formed from p orbitals of the third and higher main energy levels as opposed to the second main energy level2. The larger atomic radii and more dense electron clouds of elements of the third period and higher do not allow good parallel overlap of p orbitals necessary for a strong π bond. This is a general phenomenon — strong π bonds are formed only between elements of the second period. Thus, elemental nitrogen and oxygen form stable molecules with both σ and π bonds, but other members of their groups form more stable structures based on σ bonds only at ordinary conditions. Note3 that Group VII elements form diatomic molecules, but π bonds are not required for saturation of valence.Sulfur exhibits allotropic forms. Solid sulfur exists in two crystalline forms and in an amorphous form. Rhombic sulfur is obtained by crystallization from a suitable solution, such as CS2, and it melts at 112°C. Monoclinic sulfur is formed by cooling melted sulfur and it melts at 119°C. Both forms of crystalline sulfur melt into S-gamma, which is composed of S8 molecules. The S8 molecules are puckered rings and survive heating to about 160°C. Above 160°C, the S8 rings break open, and some of these fragments combine with each other to form a highly viscous mixture of irregularly shaped coils. At a range of higher temperatures the liquid sulfur becomes so viscous that it will not pour from its container. The color also changes from straw yellow at sulfur's melting point to a deep reddish-brown as it becomes more viscous.As4 the boiling point of 444 °C is approached, the large-coiled molecules of sulfur are partially degraded and the liquid sulfur decreases in viscosity. If the hot liquid sulfur is quenched by pouring it into cold water, the amorphous form of sulfur is produced. The structure of amorphous sulfur consists of large-coiled helices with eight sulfur atoms to each turn of the helix; the overall nature of amorphous sulfur is described as3 rubbery because it stretches much like ordinary rubber. In a few hours the amorphous sulfur reverts to small rhombic crystals and its rubbery property disappears.Sulfur, an important raw material in industrial chemistry, occurs as the free element, as SO2 in volcanic regions, as H2S in mineral waters, and in a variety of sulfide ores such as iron pyrite FeS2, zinc blende ZnS, galena PbS and such, and in common formations of gypsum CaSO4 • 2H2O, anhydrite CaSO4, and barytes BaSO4 • 2H2O. Sulfur, in one form or another, is used in large quantities for making sulfuric acid, fertilizers, insecticides, and paper.Sulfur in the form of SO2 obtained in the roasting of sulfide ores is recovered and converted to sulfuric acid, although in previous years much of this SO2 was discarded through exceptionally tall smokestacks. Fortunately, it is now economically favorable to recover these gases, thus greatly reducing this type of atmospheric pollution. A typical roasting reaction involves the change:2 ZnS + 3 O2—2 ZnO + 2 SO2Phosphorus, below 800℃ consists of tetratomic molecules, P4. Its molecular structure provides for a covalence of three, as may be expected from the three unpaired p electrons in its atomic structure, and each atom is attached to three others6. Instead of a strictly orthogonal orientation, with the three bonds 90° to each other, the bond angles are only 60°. This supposedly strained structure is stabilized by the mutual interaction of the four atoms (each atom is bonded to the other three), but it is chemically the most active form of phosphorus. This form of phosphorus, the white modification, is spontaneously combustible in air. When heated to 260°C it changes to red phosphorus, whose structure is obscure. Red phosphorus is stable in air but, like all forms of phosphorus, it should be handled carefully because of its tendency to migrate to the bones when ingested, resulting in serious physiological damage.Elemental carbon exists in one of two crystalline structures — diamond and graphite. The diamond structure, based on tetrahedral bonding of hybridized sp3 orbitals, is encountered among Group IV elements. We may expect that as the bond length increases, the hardness of the diamond-type crystal decreases. Although the tetrahedral structure persists among the elements in this group — carbon, silicon, germanium, and gray tin — the interatomic distances increase from 1.54 A for carbon to 2.80 A for gray tin. Consequently .the bond strengths among the four elements range from very strong to quite weak. In fact, gray tin is so soft that it exists in the form of microcrystals or merely as a powder. Typical of the Group IV diamond-type crystalline elements, it is a nonconductor and shows other nonmetallic properties7.03. GROUPS IB AND IIB ELEMENTSPhysical properties of Group IB and IIBThese elements have a greater bulk use as metals than in compounds, and their physical properties vary widely.Gold is the most malleable and ductile of the metals. It can be hammered into sheets of 0.00001 inch in thickness; one gram of the metal can be drawn into a wire 1.8 mi in length1. Copper and silver are also metals that are mechanically easy to work. Zinc is a little brittle at ordinary temperatures, but may be rolled into sheets at between 120° to 150℃; it becomes brittle again about 200℃-The low-melting temperatures of zinc contribute to the preparation of zinc-coated iron .galvanized iron; clean iron sheet may be dipped into vats of liquid zinc in its preparation. A different procedure is to sprinkle or air blast zinc dust onto hot iron sheeting for a zinc melt and then coating.Cadmium has specific uses because of its low-melting temperature in a number of alloys. Cadmium rods are used in nuclear reactors because the metal is a good neutron absorber.Mercury vapor and its salts are poisonous, though the free metal may be taken internally under certain conditions. Because of its relatively low boiling point and hence volatile nature, free mercury should never be allowed to stand in an open container in the laboratory. Evidence shows that inhalation of its vapors is injurious.The metal alloys readily with most of the metals (except iron and platinum) to form amalgams, the name given to any alloy of mercury.Copper sulfate, or blue vitriol (CuSO4 • 5H2O) is the most important and widely used salt of copper. On heating, the salt slowly loses water to form first the trihydrate (CuSO4 • 3HzO), then the monohydrate (CuSO4 • H2O), and finally the white anhydrous salt. The anhydrous salt is often used to test for the presence of water in organic liquids. For example, some of the anhydrous copper salt added to alcohol (which contains water) will turn blue because of the hydration of the salt.Copper sulfate is used in electroplating. Fishermen dip their nets in copper sulfate solution to inhibit the growth of organisms that would rot the fabric. Paints specifically formulated for use on the bottoms of marine craft contain copper compounds to inhibit the growth of barnacles and other organisms.When dilute ammonium hydroxide is added" to a solution of copper (I) ions, a greenish precipitate of Cu(OH)2 or a basic copper(I) salt is formed. This dissolves as more ammonium hydroxide is added. The excess ammonia forms an ammoniated complex with the copper (I) ion of the composition, Cu(NH3)42+. This ion is only slightly dissociated; hence in an ammoniacal solution very few copper (I) ions are present. Insoluble copper compounds, execpt copper sulfide, are dissolved by ammonium hydroxids. The formation of the copper (I) ammonia ion is often used as a test for Cu2+ because of its deep, intense blue color.Copper (I) ferrocyanide [Cu2Fe(CN)6] is obtained as a reddish-brown precipitate on the addition of a soluble ferrocyanide to a solution of copper ( I )ions. The formation of this salt is also used as a test for the presence of copper (I) ions.Compounds of Silver and GoldSilver nitrate, sometimes called lunar caustic, is the most important salt of silver. It melts readily and may be cast into sticks for use in cauterizing wounds. The salt is prepared by dissolving silver in nitric acid and evaporating the solution.3Ag + 4HNO3—3AgNO3 + NO + 2H2O The salt is the starting material for most of the compounds of silver, including the halides used in photography. It is readily reduced by organic reducing agents, with the formation of a black deposit of finely divided silver; this action is responsible for black spots left on the fingers from the handling of the salt. Indelible marking inks and pencils take advantage of this property of silver nitrate.The halides of silver, except the fluoride, are very insoluble compounds and may be precipitated by the addition of a solution of silver salt to a solution containing chloride, bromide, or iodide ions.The addition of a strong base to a solution of a silver salt precipitates brown silver oxide (Ag2G). One might expect the hydroxide of silver to precipitate, but it seems likely that silver hydroxide is very unstable and breaks down into the oxide and water — if, indeed, it is ever formed at all3. However, since a solution of silver oxide js definitely basic, there must be hydroxide ions present in solution.Ag2O + H2O = 2Ag+ + 2OH-Because of its inactivity, gold forms relatively few compounds. Two series of compounds are known — monovalent and trivalent. Monovalent (aurous) compounds resemble silver compounds (aurous chloride is water insoluble and light sensitive), while the higher valence (auric) compounds tend to form complexes. Gold is resistant to the action of most chemicals —air, oxygen, and water have no effect. The common acids do not attack the metal, but a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids (aqua regia) dissolves it to form gold( I ) chloride or chloroauric acid. The action is probably due to free chlorine present in the aqua regia.3HCl + HNO3----→ NOCl+Cl2 + 2H2O2Au + 3Cl2 ----→ 2AuCl3AuCl3+HCl----→ HAuCl4。